How does human exploitation affect impala populations in protected and partially protected areas? - A case study from the Serengeti Ecosystem, Tanzania

Human exploitation can have severe conservation implications for wildlife populations. In the Serengeti ecosystem, Tanzania, illegal hunting is a serious concern for wildlife management, and in this study we investigated if density, demography and behaviour can be used as indicators of human exploitation. We used impala (Aepycerus melampus) as a model species to study human exploitation inside and outside a strictly protected area. Over a six month period, a total of 2050 km of transects were driven in the different protected areas (National Park, Game Reserve, Open Area). Densities were estimated by using distance sampling and the partially protected areas were found to have significantly lower densities (4.3 ind/km2) than the National Park (15.3 ind/km2). A variation in density between different sections within the National Park was also found. However, we found no differences in group sizes. Moreover, the sex-ratio was more skewed towards females in the partially protected areas and in sections within the National Park close to villages. In addition, impalas showed higher alertness levels, and longer flight initiation distance to an approaching human in the partially protected areas compared to the National Park. The present harvest levels by illegal hunting in the study area are most likely the cause of the observed differences. Our results suggest that density, demography and behaviour can be used as indicators of human exploitation, but that this probably varies according to local hunting pressure. Furthermore, it could be expected that the results obtained in this study might reflect the state of other ungulates in the area, which raises concern whether management objectives for the buffer zones of Serengeti National Park are met. © 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.